Concern over the usage of fossil fuels and their effects on the environment is on the rise. The prospect of climate change and global warming has increased awareness of the connection between environmental pollution, energy usage, and economic growth [1]. The relationship between economic expansion, energy consumption, and carbon emissions is statistically significant. Both rich and emerging nations have seen significant increases in energy consumption, and it is anticipated that this trend will continue.

Although progress has been achieved in increasing the energy efficiency of buildings, notably in developed nations, the report adds that the fast development of building stock in developing economies means that total energy consumption and emissions from the sector are still on the rise. The IEA stresses the need for more ambitious and integrated policies and initiatives to increase energy efficiency and decrease emissions in the building sector [2].

Numerous studies have been carried out globally on building envelope designs, construction, sensitivity and optimization, life-cycle analysis, control of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) installations, and lighting systems to improve building energy conservation [3].

Researchers investigated the energy efficiency of a net-zero energy building (NZEB) in a tropical environment in a paper published in the journal Energy and Buildings in 2021. The research assessed the energy-saving efficacy of different design options, such as the use of shading devices, green roofs, and natural ventilation. These design solutions may dramatically decrease energy consumption and increase interior comfort in tropical NZEBs [4].

The energy performance of a multifamily residential structure in the United States was the subject in 2020. The research assessed the effect of several HVAC management systems, including occupancy-based ventilation and set-point reset, on the energy consumption of the building. Using these management measures may result in substantial energy savings and enhanced indoor air quality, according to the findings [5].

Passive solar architecture is an excellent technique for energy-efficient building design in cold regions. This approach highlights the importance of optimizing building orientation and layout, as well as utilizing high-performance glass and thermal insulation, to maximize solar gain and minimize heat loss. Additionally, the use of thermal mass to store solar heat during the day and release it at night, as well as the implementation of natural ventilation systems to further improve energy efficiency [6,7].

As noted in the review by [8] and the research by [9], passive cooling strategies are essential for energy-efficient building design, especially in hot and humid areas. These sources emphasize the need of constructing buildings with shading devices and thermal insulation to limit heat gain, as well as the usage of natural ventilation systems to increase airflow and lower internal temperatures. Ref. [8] also proposes the use of evaporative cooling systems and radiant cooling panels, and [9] advocates for the use of reflecting surfaces and green roofs to further improve passive cooling tactics. As proven in the case study by [10], a comprehensive approach to energy-efficient building design is crucial for reaching net-zero energy usage by merging a variety of passive design tactics with active systems such as solar panels and energy-efficient HVAC systems.

According to the literature analysis, several new building simulation programs have been created in the last few decades. According to research by [11], the most essential qualities for architects and engineers are user-friendliness, accuracy, and interoperability. Due to the ease of use, interoperability, and quality of data processing and interpretation, well-known simulation tools Energy Plus and BEopt with the help of AutoCAD are used. The study used a simulation program and modeling based on various case scenarios from literature and researcher assumptions. The results from the computer simulation of an actual traditional Mediterranean house (scenario 1), a contemporary house (scenario 2), the assumptions of a traditional Mediterranean house (scenario 3), and a contemporary house (scenario 4) PSEEDS are compared using comparative methods.

Energy Plus and BEopt software provides nearly accurate analytical comparisons based on quantitative data collection and some parameters. It offers minimum, maximum, and average values for case-specific parameters. The main parameters used in the study are shown in Table 1. Computer programs analyze sunshine penetration via façades. Excel sheets are used to examine the data and measurement instrument outputs (energy consumption and conservation). Consider the researcher’s error rate. Simulation on a computer is the most sophisticated approach for obtaining output values and quantitative findings for comparing existing with the assumption house (Figure 1).

On weekdays, occupants leave the house from 8:00 to 16:00, from 16:00 to 18:00, half of the occupants are considered back in the house, and finally from 18:00 to 8:00 all occupants are considered inside the house;

On weekends, all the occupants are assumed inside the house all day.

The study involves two different residential houses, traditional Mediterranean (scenario 1) and contemporary (scenario 2) houses as shown in Figure 2. Both residential housing units were modeled with AutoCAD as shown in Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5 and Figure 6 and analyzed using BEopt and Energy Plus computer programs. The actual house built-up area is 400.98 m2, scenario 1 with a length of 24.45 m,16.4 m in width, and 24.6 m in length, whereas 16.3 m is the width of scenario 2. Both actual houses are two stories linked by a staircase and face towards the south.

As seen in the accompanying Figure 2 Google map, both study houses are situated in the hamlet of Akdo?an, North Cyprus, less than 10 min walking distance apart or 550 M. Following the main and access roads, both houses face south. As seen in Figure 3 and Figure 4, the building entrance is likewise positioned on the south side of the structure. Comparing the traditional Mediterranean house to the second scenario (contemporary house), the traditional Mediterranean house has bigger rooms and also has little bit larger windows (openings) than the second case according to the plans. This is due to the fact that the typical houses in the region were designed to accommodate the climate of the Mediterranean, hence providing natural ventilation.

The distinctive subtropical climate of North Cyprus offers both advantages and disadvantages for the construction of energy-efficient buildings. North Cyprus experiences hot, dry summers, wet winters, and brief autumn and spring seasons. The region’s average annual temperature is 17.5 °C (Figure 6) [12]. The maximum mean temperature or the greatest temperature, experienced in North Cyprus on a normal day each month is represented by the solid red line in the weather image. The dashed red and blue lines depict the average of the warmest day and the coldest night in each month, while the solid blue line displays the average lowest temperature. Regional weather (30 km area) averages for last 30 years. Local conditions may differ. These facts offer crucial knowledge for creating structures that are both energy-efficient and capable of maintaining a suitable interior temperature.

The North Cyprus wind rise shows the yearly hours in kilometers per hour (Km/h) that a certain wind direction blows (Figure 7). The direction of the prevailing wind should be considered when choosing the optimal orientation for a building’s design since wind-resistant buildings that utilize natural ventilation will benefit from being orientated in that direction. The wind rises in North Cyprus demonstrate that the wind generally blows from the SW to the NE, which is important information for constructing structures that take advantage of the prevailing wind direction.

In conclusion, North Cyprus’s subtropical temperature, powerful and steady winds, and exclusive reliance on electricity give both possibilities and difficulties for the construction of energy-efficient buildings. Building designers may develop structures that are cozy, energy-efficient, and sustainable by taking these considerations into account and using renewable energy sources. The materials and methods used in the study have been summarized as shown in Table 2.

Utilizing natural energy flows to ensure thermal comfort is the goal of passive design. Using the right building orientation, building materials, and landscape are important. To avoid or reduce heat gain, structures should be appropriately orientated and the building envelope’s material should be specified. Additionally, shading must be provided to reduce sun radiation [13]. For enhancing health and well-being in the built environment, these tactics and strategies can also be strengthened by a variety of characteristics, such as the use of technology and customizable controls.

The three major principles of glass façade performance are i. visual Comfort, ii. thermal comfort, and iii. Solar radiation. A glass building envelope divides the internal and outside environments. Differing conditions provide environmental loads. The most critical environmental loads are temperature, moisture, and air pressure. Both exterior and interior temperature variables (occupant activities, ventilation, and heating equipment) contribute to temperature load [14].

Visual comfort: is achieved when the human eyes get enough light without straining to see certain activities [15];

Thermal comfort: Temperatures between 24 °C and 26 °C provide adequate thermal comfort. Body façade temperature is 33–34 °C or less while inactive, whereas interior temperatures rise with exercise. A temperature of 45 °C or less may induce irreparable brain damage and death. Thus, maintaining a comfortable body temperature is essential for health [16]; mentioned in Fanger, 1970 study;

Solar radiation: Solar radiation has a big impact on the glass façade. It raises surface temperatures, causing rapid drying and inward vapor flow in the glass façade. Radiation travels parallel to two surfaces. This information helps anticipate solar radiation location, time, and intensity depending on the orientation and path of the sun and building [17].

Comparatively, the Mediterranean house has somewhat larger windows and a higher window coverage than the contemporary house, but both traditional and contemporary houses have a low percentage of glass coverage, as seen by the images of the building envelope (Figure 8).

The building’s cost may be reduced in a variety of ways thanks to the shading design. Additionally, it aids in reducing direct sunlight and achieving diffused daylight for the comfort of the occupant’s eyes. The window’s orientation affects the size and kind of shading. Depending on the window orientation, the typical North Cyprus (Cyprus Turkish) house design types are shown in Figure 9. In general, vertical fenestration is needed to block the sun from the east and west, whereas horizontal shading elements function effectively in north and south orientation. The shade pattern for the southwest and southeast direction is the toughest, though. The sun is at a medium height in these directions. Because of this, using either horizontal or vertical shade devices will not reduce glare; rather, a mix of both forms of shading is needed to reduce the intensity of the sun.

As seen in Figure 5 and Figure 8, both study houses use deep overhanging approaches in different contexts. Typical Mediterranean houses use deep overhangs (A), window shading (C), and extended balconies as shading devices as their primary means of shade (Figure 9). In contrast, the primary characteristic of the contemporary house is their flat (terrace) roofs and indoor shade. The study attempts to identify dwellings that share the same or similar environments, and in both instances, the dwellings have deep overhangs for shade.

The bulk of the rooms in well-designed structures should be oriented toward the equator, and the spaces should be laid up in this fashion. Thus, the early and afternoon low-angle summer sun shines on the eastern and western sides. Summer sun angles in the sky make it simple to shade windows with just a wide roof overhang or a horizontal shade. The building’s longer north and south sides benefit from the low-angle winter sun. When the structure needs warmth in the winter, the roof overhang or shade on the equator side should let the sun shine in. In the summer, it should offer appropriate protection from high-angle sun [18].

In hot temperature zones, clay bricks and masonry, which have high thermal mass capacities and can support internally acceptable climates, are frequently employed as building materials [19]; as mentioned in Rapoport, 1969 study. Understanding elements that impact the thermal design of buildings, such as the thermal performance and thermal insulation of building materials, is necessary to devise methods for reducing the amount of energy consumed. The link between a material’s thermal characteristics and the thermal cycle it must regulate determines the material’s utility for thermal efficiency.

High concentrated heat capacity, high density, and thermal conductivity are necessary for thermal mass to ensure that heat fluxes into and out of the material coincide with the thermal cycle of the occupied area [20]. While steel has a too-high thermal conductivity and timber is a too-sluggish heat absorber, materials like concrete and clay brick often have a useful thermal mass. A material’s capacity to absorb and release heat during thermal cycles is referred to as admittance or thermal mass and it depends on its density, thickness, and thermal conductivity [21]. The following variables affect a material’s thermal mass:

Thermal capacity: the quantity of thermal energy required to raise a kilogram of a material’s temperature by one degree Kelvin (1°K);

Density: varies according to the mass (or weight) per unit volume. Density and thermal mass have a positive connection; they both rise as thermal mass does. The unit of density is kg/m3;

Thermal conductivity: assesses a material’s capacity to transmit heat. To facilitate thermal absorption and release in a way that synchronizes with the building’s cooling and heating cycle, it is preferred for materials with high thermal mass to have moderate thermal conductivity. Watts per meter Kelvin (W/mkal) is the unit used to express thermal conductivity.

(Figure 10) Both houses have a large thermal mass, but their building methods vary. Traditional houses have thick walls ranging from 40 to 60 cm, whereas contemporary structures employ 20 cm for exterior walls and 10–15 cm for internal walls, in addition to a heating and cooling system. Both kinds of houses used clay bricks of varied sizes and thicknesses to achieve the desired results.

Thermal comfort represents subjective contentment with one’s thermal environment [22]. This model was constructed by calculating thermal satisfaction, which is usually above 85%. According to research, the human body’s thermoregulatory system maintains 33–34 °C. This system’s metabolic balance determines thermal comfort.

Thermal comfort parameters: Personal and environmental variables impact thermal comfort, according to [22]. Air temperature, mean radiant temperature, airspeed, and humidity are the latter. In addition to that, ASHRAE defines several terms in terms of the thermal environmental conditions required for human occupation. This research employed thermally comfortable circumstances to achieve its purpose. This paper used ASHRAE beside [22].

Both actual and assumption scenarios under traditional Mediterranean house energy consumption have been calculated as explained under the Methods section of the study using 2D drawing, 3D modeling, and energy simulation (BEopt and EnergyPlus) programs. The results for both actual and assumed scenarios are summarized in Table 3. The assumption scenario is adopted PSEEDS to improve the thermal comfort of the occupants and save energy required for maintaining the indoor and outdoor environment. Notwithstanding, the assumption house which adopts PSEEDS achieved a convincing percentage of energy reduction of the required consumption for heating and cooling, and 69.8% energy conservation in heating requirements can be achieved. The energy requirement for cooling has been reduced by 9.3%. As learned from the results, the adoption of PSEEDS has a significant effect on reducing the energy required for heating. Traditional Mediterranean houses are designed and built to be comfortable for their Mediterranean climate so by its nature, the high thermal mass in the wall, the headroom, openings, and built-in shading devices maintain comfort during all summer times.

The contemporary house has two scenarios as shown in Figure 1 simulation houses which are scenarios 2 and 4. The construction of the houses is a concrete slab on both the ground and first floor with clay brick walls 20 centimeters thick. It simulated the same method of the traditional Mediterranean house using BEopt and EnergyPlus. For contemporary house scenario 2 without PSEEDS and scenario 4 with PSEEDS, the Cyprus weather data considered for the simulation and the data obtained from the Meteoblue web source and the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) from the EnergyPlus program

As shown in Table 4, a significant reduction in energy consumption has been registered as the results obtained from the simulation program. By adopting PSEEDS, 31.38% energy conservation has been achieved in the annual heating and cooling energy usage. Individual heating loads have conserved 73% per year. Although yearly cooling loads only saw a minor improvement of 6.1%, these outcomes are comparable to those shown for the traditional Mediterranean (scenarios 1 and 3). But compared to the traditional Mediterranean, the contemporary house with PSEEDS appears to have minor energy consumption throughout the winter. This shows that contemporary houses with the integration of PSEEDS have less efficiency to maintain the indoor environment. This is simply because the traditional Mediterranean house has a high thermal mass in comparison to the contemporary house. The thermal mass helps to maintain the heat loss in all seasons, and because of that, the traditional Mediterranean house takes advantage of the contemporary house in addition to PSEEDS.

Indoor–outdoor temperatures shown in Figure 11 represent the temperature of traditional Mediterranean houses with and without PSEEDS and Figure 12 shows the indoor–outdoor temperature of contemporary houses with and without PSEEDS, and there is no HVAC operating during the study. Comparing the indoor temperature of both actual houses turned out that the contemporary house shows a minor fluctuation. The traditional Mediterranean house maintains the indoor and has a more constant temperature. The reason has been explained in the previous section (the traditional Mediterranean house has a ticking wall with high thermal mass) and because of that, the heat gain is not easily lost.

The traditional Mediterranean house required very low energy for heating because of its high thermal mass, and the contemporary house required more energy for heating in comparison to the traditional Mediterranean house. Figure 13 and Figure 14 show the same result for summer days: the contemporary house more likely following the outside temperature than the traditional Mediterranean house. In a nutshell, the traditional Mediterranean house required less energy than the contemporary house.

Comparing both the actual and assumed (improved with PSEEDS) houses, significant energy conservation has been noted from the simulation results in Table 3 and Table 4. The traditional Mediterranean house required less energy in comparison to the contemporary house, and this is because of the high thermal mass of its walls. The thermal mass serves as the thermal storage, it absorbs the summer heat during the day and releases it during the night with cooling breezes, and during winter, thermal mass absorbs the heat from the sun and releases it into the house during the night [23]. The thermal mass helps to keep the indoor environment comfortable for the occupants. Further, as the thermal mass decreases, the heat gain also declines with it. Comparing both Table 3 and Table 4 gives an energy conservation of 422.96 kWh/yr. (34.71%) for traditional Mediterranean houses, and contemporary houses were reduced by 31.38% (552.69 kWh/yr.), and energy conservation has been achieved.

As shown in Figure 11, Figure 12, Figure 13 and Figure 14, adopting PSEEDS and applying high thermal mass effectively on both traditional Mediterranean and contemporary houses gave significant energy conservation as shown in Figure 15 and Table 3 and Table 4. The energy consumption was reduced by 34.71% for the traditional Mediterranean house and 31.38% for a contemporary house during the summer (Table 5). Furthermore, applying high thermal mass plays a significant role in heating and cooling energy load demand on both types of houses.